Healthcare associated infections (HAIs) result in a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in the United States. In 2002, the estimated number of HAIs in U.S. hospitals, adjusted to include federal facilities, was approximately 1.7 million. The overall annual direct medical costs of HAI to U.S. hospitals ranges from $28.4 to $33.8 billion.
The most significant types of HAIs are central line-associated bloodstream infection (CLABSI), Clistridium difficile Infection (CDI, C. diff), Surgical Site Infection (SSI), Catheter-associated urinary tract infection (CAUTI), and Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) which combined account for roughly two thirds of all HAIs in the US. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) provide substantial information and resources in characterizing these and other infections. This information may be found at http://www.cdc.gov/HAI/infectionTypes.html and is incorporated into the background by reference.
In general, HAIs arise from patient- and procedure-specific risk factors. Host-specific factors include patient co-morbidities such as hemodialysis, diabetes, or age. Such inherent risk factors are not easily modifiable, with little opportunity for intervention to reduce infection risks. See, Uslan, Daniel Z. Overview of Infections of Cardiac Rhythm Management Devices. EP Lab Digest, Supplement to May 2009. Procedure-associated risks correlate with a high rate of surgical site infection (SSI) and catheter related infections due to factors such as inpatient or outpatient treatment, length of procedure time, and venue of surgical theatre (operating room or catheterization lab). In addition, there are also infection risks related to the use of biotechnology, in which the patient is susceptible to exposure from diagnostic equipment (endoscope/laparoscope) and implants (hip prosthesis, cardiac rhythm management devices/CRMDs), including both autograft and allograft transplants.
All surgical procedures involve a small but serious risk of infection. However, infections involving CRMDs are specifically difficult to resolve due to the presence of prosthetic material within the body. CRMD infections result in a substantial cost to the healthcare system because the implanted hardware must be extracted and replaced. See, Reynolds, Matthew R. The Health Economic Consequences of Cardiac Rhythm Device Infections. EP Lab Digest, Supplement to May 2009. Reducing or preventing HAI's are a function of reducing infectious agents colonizing in an area that can result in an infection to the body.
Adherence to the principles of sterile technique is crucially important in achieving asepsis in the operating room complex. Prior to reprocessing to achieve disinfection or sterility, any instrument or equipment must be properly cleaned using the following: a detergent or enzymatic cleaner, an ultrasonic cleaner, or an automated washer. Disinfection involves the physical or chemical cleaning which renders an object or surface free from dangerous microbial life, allowing it to be safely handled. Sterilization is the process of eradicating all evidence of live micro-organisms, including spores. The integrity of the surgical site is preserved by keeping the surgical team gowned and gloved, with the use of sterile items confined to the level of table height within the sterile field, which is created as close as possible to the time of use. During a surgical intervention, sterile persons must touch only sterile items; they must also remain within the sterile area and avoid reaching over an unsterile area.
Despite compliance to rigorous infection control protocols, micro-organisms with nosocomial infection potential are still present in the hospital environment: Clostridium Difficile, Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus, Staphylococci, Enterococci, Pseudomonas, Streptococci, and Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococcus. See, Malan, Kim. Registered Nurses' Knowledge of Infection Control and Sterile Technique Principles in the Operating Room Complex of Private Hospitals. Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University. 2009. This may be explained by a 2009 study which evaluated sanitation procedures in operating rooms; it established that after cleaning, the post sanitation bacterial load resumed an increase in levels of total microbial count, depending on the material of the surface and its horizontal or vertical disposition. See, Fabretti, Alessia, PhD, et al. Experimental Evaluation of the Efficacy of Sanitation Procedures in Operating Rooms. Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology, Inc. 2009.
Due to the resurgence of micro-organisms which contribute to SSI, different apparatuses and methods have been developed to enhance sanitation levels in the operating complex. Instruments which cannot be sterilized must be disinfected using thermal pasteurization or chemical inactivation. Pasteurization is not compatible with all instruments, as it requires a high tolerance for heat and moisture processing. The practice of chemical disinfection also encounters some limitations; only instrument-grade disinfectants are suitable for use with medical instruments and equipment. Glutaraldehyde is most effective for inactivating all microbial pathogens except where there is a large presence of bacterial spores, but it must be used under strictly controlled conditions in a safe working environment. See, World Health Organization. Practical Guidelines for Infection Control in Health Care Facilities. SEARO Regional Publication No. 41. 2004. The CDC has published a comprehensive reference entitled Guideline for Disinfection and Sterilization in Healthcare Facilities, 2008 which is included in its entirety by reference herein.
Medical devices which penetrate sterile body sites must be sterilized through either physical or chemical methods to eliminate all micro-organisms. The most common physical method for sterilization involves using heat to oxidize the proteins in microbes. However, the dry heat which is produced by incineration devices such as the Bunsen burner or the hot-air oven take several hours to achieve sterilization. Moist heat can also destroy micro-organisms using boiling water, pasteurization, autoclaving, or tyndallization. While these techniques are able to kill microbes by denaturing their proteins, they also require many hours to eliminate bacterial spores.
A few physical methods which control the growth and presence of micro-organisms do not involve heat. Filtration is a process by which liquids or gases are passed through a series of pores small enough to trap the micro-organisms. The filtration medium may be comprised of nitrocellulose membranes or diatomaceous earth. Drying is a process which eradicates microbes by removing water from their cells. Another technique for drying involves lyophilization, which quick freezes liquids and then subjects them to evacuation. While cold temperatures can slow down bacterial growth, freezing temperatures kill many micro-organisms by forming ice crystals. These various methods all require an investment of time to perform some repetitive cycling of the process while the microbes are eradicated. See, Alcamo, I. Edward, PhD. Cliffs Quick Review Microbiology. Wiley Publishing. 1996.
The use of radiation also provides a physical form of sterilization. Radiation can be emitted in different forms such as microwave, ultraviolet (UV) light, pulsed UV, broad spectrum pulsed light (BSPL) electron beam, and pulsed electrical field (PEF). The direct effect of microwave on microbes is minimal; water molecules will vibrate at the microwave frequency, creating heat. This high temperature is the agent which atomizes the micro-organism and kills it, rather than the microwave itself. Though not a form of radiation, ultrasonic atomization is similar to microwave atomization in that a shock wave is used to induce the expansion of water droplets, which would then atomize any bioaerosols in the airstream.
A common form of radiation involves the use of UV light emitted from a mercury lamp, which is directed as a single photon that can penetrate a micro-organism and disassociate its DNA. Shortwave ultraviolet light, or germicidal UV-C, can kill bacteria at a wavelength between 200-280 nm. It is commonly employed at 254 nm for air, water, and surface disinfection, but the lethal wavelength to inactivate micro-organisms varies with the kind of bacteria, spores, viruses, mold, yeast, and algae, as well as their exposure time to that specific intensity. See, Andersen, B. M., MD, PhD, et al. Comparison of UV C Light and Chemicals for Disinfection of Surfaces in Hospital Isolation Units. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology. July 2006. Higher wavelengths penetrate the contaminated surface more thoroughly, but more intense radiation produces more heat, which may not be suitable for all sterilization applications.
As a source of UV radiation, an alternative to continuous mercury lamps is the pulsed xenon arc or xenon flashlamp. Compared to continuous wave sources such as mercury lamps, the pulsed xenon flashlamp is more efficient in its conversion of electrical energy to light energy, while its output of light intensity in the critical 200-300 nm wavelength region is substantially greater. See, Lamont, Y. et al. Pulsed UV-light inactivation of poliovirus and adenovirus. Letters in Applied Microbiology 45, 2007, pages 564-567. This technology kills micro-organisms by emitting very brief pulses of an intense broadband emission spectrum which is rich in UV-C germicidal light. A continuous 10 W mercury lamp would have to be operated for 10 seconds to achieve the same sterility level as a 1 MW pulsed xenon lamp operated for just 100 μs. See, Farrell, H. P. et al. Investigation of critical inter-related factors affecting the efficacy of pulsed light for inactivating clinically relevant bacterial pathogens. Journal of Applied Microbiology 106, 2010, pages 1494-1508. In 1996, the Food and Drug Administration approved the use of pulsed light technology for microbial inactivation for alternative food processing technology under the condition that xenon flashlamps are used as the pulse light source and the cumulative treatment does not exceed 12 J/cm2. See, Woodling, Sarah and Carmen Moraru. Effect of Spectral Range in Surface Inactivation of Listeria Innocua Using Broad-Spectrum Pulsed Light. Journal of Food Protection. Vol 70, No. 4, 2007, pages 909-916. Pulsed light radiation involves the use of intense and short duration of broad-spectrum “white light,” which includes wavelengths in the ultraviolet, through the visible, to the near infrared region. In one commercial application acknowledged by the FDA, the material to be disinfected is exposed to at least 1 pulse of light having a range of energy density between 0.01 to 50 J/cm2 at the surface. Each pulse of light is typically comprised of 1 to 20 flashes per second. The wavelength is distributed so that at least 70% of the electromagnetic energy is within the broad spectrum range of 170 to 2600 nm. Broad spectrum pulsed light (BSPL) can be delivered at an intensity which is 20,000 times greater than sunlight at the earth's surface, though the intense flashes of light may be less than 1 millisecond in duration. Because several pulses can be generated per second, BSPL can perform sterilization at a faster rate than other conventional processes for physical sterilization, and its efficacy has been tested against a broad range of micro-organisms, including bacteria, spores, fungi, viruses, and protozoa. See, Food and Drug Administration. Kinetics of Microbial Inactivation for Alternative Food Processing Technologies—Pulsed Light Technology. http://www.fda.gov/Food/ScienceResearch/ResearchAreas/SafePracticesforFoodProcesses/ucm103058.htm.
Another alternative source of UV radiation is the light emitting diode (LED), though until recently, LED's lacked the efficiency and longevity to be effective for sterilization. Recent developments from companies like UV Craftory Co (Aichi, Japan), crystal IS (Green Island, N.Y.), and Sensor Electronic Technology, Inc. (Columbia, S.C.) have enabled UV LED technology to be more practical for commercial applications. The benefits are low heat generation, low power consumption, instant on and off control, and the ability to produce narrow wavelength distributions in the UV-A, UV-B, and UV-C spectrums. A narrow wavelength distribution in the UVC spectrum is especially useful when there is concern for the safety of the radiation in contact with the user or sterile site.
Yet another alternative source of UV radiation is a UV laser, where coherent UV radiation is produced by a laser diode, an excimer laser, or any other viable means of producing UV radiation that has limited diffraction and whose phase is relatively correlated along the beam. The advantage to using UV-C to disinfect surfaces is that it requires a relatively short exposure time without necessary manual labor. UV-C also has little impact on the environment; it leaves no residues and does not produce drug-resistant micro-organisms. However, UV-C may cause some degradation over time on various materials including plastics and rubbers. It also has the disadvantage of possessing a low penetrating effect (1-2 mm), so measures must be taken to reduce any shadowing in the surgical field.
Ultraviolet Dosage Required.For 99.9% Destruction of Various Organisms(μW-s/cm2 at 254 nanometer)BacteriaBacillus anthracis8,700B. enteritidis7,600B. Megatherium sp. (vegatative)2,500B. Megatherium sp. (spores)52,000B. paratyphosus6,100B. subtilis (vegatative)11,000B. subtilis (spores)58,000Clostridium tetani22,000Corynebacterium diphtheria6,500Eberthella typhosa4,100Escherichia coli7,000Leptospira interrogans6,000Micrococcus candidus12,300Micrococcus sphaeroides15,400Mycobacterium tuberculosis10,000Neisseria catarrhalis8,500Phytomonas tumefaciens8,500Proteus vulgaris6,600Pseudomonas aeruginosa10,500Pseudomonas fluorescens6,600Salmonella enteritidis7,600Salmonella paratyphi6,100Salmonella typhimurium15,200Salmonella typhosa (Typhoid)6,000Sarcina lutea26,400Serratia marcescens6,200Shigella dysenteriae (Dysentery)4,200Shigella paradysenteriae3,400Spirillum rubrum6,160Staphylococcus albus5,720Staphylococcus aureus6,600Streptococcus hemolyticus5,500Streptococcus lactis8,800Streptococcus viridans3,800Vibrio chlolerae6,500Mold SporesAspergillus flavus99,000Aspergillus glaucus88,000Aspergillus niger330,000Mucor racemosus A35,200Mucor racemosus B35,200Oospora lactis11,000Penicillium digitatum88,000Penicillium expansum22,000Penicillium roqueforti26,400Rhizopus nigricans220,000Algae/ProtozoaChlorella vulgaris (algae)22,000Nematode eggs92,000Paramecium200,000VirusBacteriophage (E. coli)6,600Hepatitis virus8,000Influenza virus6,600Polio virus6,000Rotavirus24,000Tobacco mosnic440,000YeastBaker's yeast8,800Brewer's yeast6,600Common yeast cake13,200Saccharomyces cerevisiae13,200 Saccharomyces ellipsoideus13,200Saccharomyces sp.17,600
Another application of radiation as a physical form of sterilization involves the use of pulsed electrical field (PEF), which is produced when high-voltage electrodes are charged and discharged in fractions of a second. PEF has been used to induce microbial inactivation by creating a disruption of cell membranes in micro-organisms. This process emits an intense electrical field which exceeds the cell's critical transmembrane potential. The efficacy of PEF for use in sterilization is affected by many factors such as the intensity of the electric field, the number of pulses, the pulse duration, the processing temperature, the type of organism, the electrical conductivity, and the pH of the medium or contact surface. See, Wsierska, Ewelina and Tadeusz Trziszka. Evaluation of the use of pulsed electrical field as a factor with antimicrobial activity. Journal of Food Engineering 78. pp. 1320-1325. 2007. The shape of the wave pulse is also an important variant; electric field pulses may be applied in several forms: exponential decays, square waves, oscillatory, bipolar, or instant reverse charges. For microbial inactivity, oscillatory pulses are the least efficient, while square wave pulses are more lethal and energy efficient than exponential decaying pulses. Bipolar pulses are more destructive to micro-organisms than monopolar pulses because a PEF causes charged molecules to move within their cell membranes. A reverse orientation in the polarity of the field causes the molecules to change directions, so that the alternating bipolar pulses create stresses in the cell membrane which contribute to its electrical disintegration. The instant reverse charge is a pulse which is partially positive at the moment of initiation but then becomes partially negative directly afterward. An increase in the electrical conductivity of the treated medium will decrease both the positive and the negative intervals of the pulse, producing an increase in the overall peak voltage ratio. Compared to other pulse waveforms, the instant reverse charge can be 5× more efficient for inactivating micro-organisms.
Cold atmospheric plasma (CAP) has also been used successfully for sterilization without damaging healthy tissue. Numerous components of the plasma including reactive oxygen or nitrogen species, charged particles, electric fields, and UV radiation are involved in these effects. Both physical mechanisms caused by reactive species, free radicals, and UV photons, as well as biological mechanisms are thought to be responsible for the inactivation of bacteria. See, Heinlin, Julia, et al. Plasma medicine: possible applications in dermatology. JDDG; 2010 8, page 1. CAP also has the benefit of stimulating wound healing, and has been used successfully in reducing the time for surgical wounds to heal while minimizing scarring.
Chemical methods for controlling microbial growth involve the use of phenol, halogens such as iodine and chlorine, alcohols, heavy metals, aldehydes, ethylene oxide, and oxidizing agents such as nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, hydrogen peroxide, benzoyl peroxide, and ozone. Due to their ease of use, chemicals have been vastly employed for sterilization. However, they may result in adverse effects by altering the nature of treated surfaces or by propagating odorous reactions or biohazardous substances. See, Mori, Mirei, et al. Development of a new water sterilization device with a 365 nm UV-LED. Medical and Biological Engineering and Computing. 2007.
Antimicrobial drugs are chemicals which kill micro-organisms or inhibit their growth. By damaging the plasma membrane or interfering with DNA replication and transcription, by disrupting the synthesis of nucleic acids, proteins, or metabolic products, these drugs destroy pathogens through cell lysis. The disadvantage to using antimicrobial agents is that these drugs attack not only the infectious organisms, but the indigenous flora as well, compromising the host's normal defensive capacity. Broad spectrum antimicrobials target pathogenic organisms as well as micro-organisms in the host. However, in some instances, a competing micro-organism may develop resistance against the antimicrobial drug, resulting in its overgrowth. See, Research and Education Association. Microbiology Super Review. REA. 2006.
Recent developments in technology to prevent SSI have resulted in a combination of physical and chemical sterilization techniques. This may have been motivated by the emergence of more sophisticated medical instruments and devices which are sensitive to heat and moisture, and thus inspired the creation of low temperature alternatives to steam and dry heat sterilization processes. Ethylene oxide (EtO), which was introduced in the early 1950s, has been the standard among hospitals for low temperature sterilization. Though it is a very effective microbiocidal agent, EtO is an odorless, colorless gas which can become toxic if handled improperly. It also requires a cycle time of 8-12 hours. No other suitable alternative was available until paracetic acid was introduced in 1988. However, instruments sterilized with paracetic acid must be used immediately, creating a dependence on “just-in-time processing.” See, Ackert-Burr, Cheri, R N, MSN. Low Temperature Sterilization: Are You In The Know? Perioperative Nursing Clinics 5. pages 281-290. 2010. The use of ozone gas and hydrogen peroxide gas plasma for low temperature sterilization provides a quick cycling time without the dangers of toxic residuals. A recent study also demonstrated that in-flight bacteria inactivation may be achieved using ozone and nonthermal plasma, which is derived from a dielectric barrier grating discharge. See, Vaze, Nachiket D. et al. Inactivation of Bacteria in Flight by Direct Exposure to Nonthermal Plasma. IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science, Vol. 38, No. 11. November 2010.
Ozone is a naturally occurring elemental form of oxygen. It is formed naturally in the environment or artificially with an ozone generator. In the atmosphere, ozone is produced in nature by UV light from the sun or high-voltage electric discharges from lightening. Ozone can also be artificially induced by passing an electric field through a curtain of oxygen gas. See, Broder, Bryant C. and Jason Simon. Understanding Ozone. Materials Management in Health Care. September 2004. Ozone can also be produced by passing air or oxygen gas through UV light at approximately 185 nm wavelength, though to a significantly lower effect than with an electric field or corona discharge. The use of ozone sterilization technology was approved by the FDA in 2003. In its application for low-temperature sterilization, ozone is produced using medical-grade oxygen which is stimulated by electricity in a deep vacuum within a sterilization chamber. This reaction causes the ozone molecule to revert back to its diatomic state by releasing an extra oxygen atom which attaches to micro-organisms and oxidizes proteins and enzymes which result in the death of the organic matter. Since ozone can be converted back into oxygen and water vapor, which can be safely vented, this method provides a sound and economical sterilization process. One novel approach to sterilization technology employs ultrasonic cavitation augmented by injected ozone of high concentration. By varying the temperature of the water bath and the concentration of ozone subjected to a continuous or periodic ultrasound source, it is possible to increase the effectiveness of this application for reducing microbiological pollution. See, Krasnyj, V. V. et al. Sterilization of Microorganisms by Ozone and Ultrasound. PLASMA 2007, edited by H. J. Hartfuss et al. American Institute of Physics. 2008. Another original application of ozone in a sterilization process uses ultrasonic levitation energy and ozone bubbles to remove particles from soiled materials, which are then treated with silver electrolysis to kill microbes. Micro-organisms have a bi-phospholipid layer which can only function properly in a specific conformation maintained by the disulfide bond —S—S—. Silver ions or atoms produced by silver electrolysis disrupt the bond between —S—S— and —SAg, interfering with the conformation, which then inhibit the respiration or nutrition of aerobic organisms, and thereby produce microbial inactivity. See, Ueda, Toyotoshi, et al. Simultaneous Treatment of Washing, Disinfection and Sterilization Using Ultrasonic Levitation, Silver Electrolysis and Ozone Oxidation. Biocontrol Science, Vol. 14, No. 1, pages 1-12. 2009. Ozonated water is created by either injecting ozone gas into water, or by exposing oxygenated water to UV light at approximately 185 nm wavelength. Ozone in water as dilute as 1 ug/ml is anti-microbial, and can be used to sterilize. Plasma-activated water (PAW) is a plasmachemical solution obtained by the activation of water with electric discharges such as cold atmospheric plasma (CAP). PAW has been shown to significantly reduce microbial populations and even overcome the antibiotic resistance of bacteria when used in combination with antibiotics.
Using chemical compounds produced by the immune system, such as superoxide and hypochlorous acid, can prove to be useful because of their effectiveness and known compatibility with biological processes. Superoxide is a compound that contains the highly reactive oxygen radical O2− and is used for oxygen-dependent killing mechanisms of microorganisms in the immune system. Hypochlorous acid is an acid and an oxidizer that can be created by the immune system with the chemical formulation HClO. Hypochlorous acid and its sodium hypochlorite NaClO and calcium hypochlorite Ca(ClO)2 variations are used as effective disinfectants.
Hydrogen peroxide gas plasma also offers a fast, nontoxic alternative to EtO sterilization. One commercial application vaporizes an aqueous solution of hydrogen peroxide in a deep vacuum chamber. Once the gaseous hydrogen peroxide is diffused throughout the load, the chamber pressure is reduced and this produces the low-temperature gas plasma. Radiation energy in the range of radio frequency (RF) wavelength is applied to the chamber using an RF amplifier, and this induces a plasma state which produces reactive species that inactivate microbes. Once the high-energy species stop reacting, they recombine to form harmless water vapor, oxygen, and other nontoxic byproducts. See, Slaybaugh, RaeAnn. Sterilization: Gas Plasma, Steam, and Washer-Decontamination. http://infectioncontroltoday.com. Virgo Publishing. Jun. 1, 2000.
Possibly the simplest sterilization technique is to remove all micro-organisms from a fluid. Various fluid filtration methods have been utilized with varying degrees of filtration. A High Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) filter is generally defined as being capable of removing 99.97% of all particulates greater than 0.3 microns. More sophisticated filters such as Ultra Low Penetration Air (ULPA) filters are capable of removing 99.999% of all particulates and microorganisms of the most penetrating particle size at a specified air velocity. Super ULPA filters are capable of removing 99.9999% of all particulates and microorganisms on the same basis as the ULPA filters. Multi-stage sterile gas filters designed for filtering compressed or pressurized gases are capable of filtering 99.999+% at 0.01 microns (Balston Filters, Haverhill, Mass.). The smallest know living bacteria have a size of approximately 200 nm (0.2 microns), where the smallest known virus has a size of approximately 12 nm (0.012 microns), so it is important to select an appropriately rated filter to adequately remove bacteria and viruses from the media.
An alternative method for removing micro-organisms from a fluid involves the use of negative air ionization. This approach uses an electrostatic space charge system (ESCS) to create negatively charged airborne particles which may be collected onto special grounded collector plates or screens. The ESCS was observed to reduce biofilms on stainless steel surfaces by transferring a strong negative electrostatic charge to bacterial cells on exposed areas. See, Arnold, J. and B. W. Mitchell. Use of Negative Air Ionization for Reducing Microbial Contamination on Stainless Steel Surfaces. Journal of Applied Poultry Research, Vol. 11, pages 179-186. Poultry Science Association. 2002. One disadvantage to using negative air ionization involves the accumulation of potentially infectious particles onto adjacent surfaces or grounded parts of the ionizer, creating a “black-wall effect” observed on the discolored walls of the ionizer chamber. This problem may be alleviated, however, using localized grounded collecting plates. Another potential downside in using ionizers is their ability to produce static charge which may interfere with medical equipment, though this exposure is minimal beyond a distance of 1 meter from the ionizer. See, Escombe, A. Roderick et al. Upper-Room Ultraviolet Light and Negative Air Ionization to Prevent Tuberculosis Transmission. PLoS Medicine (Public Library of Science). Vol. 6, Issue 3, March 2009.
Attempts have been made and disclosed to reduce HAI's by applying many of the aforementioned sterilization techniques to sterile sites. For example U.S. Pat. No. 6,283,986 relates to the method of treating wounds with UV radiation.
U.S. Patent Publication No. 2010/0234794 relates to a system and method for reducing surgical site infection by delivering air to the surgical site and incorporating anti-microbial agents and optionally UV or blue light.
U.S. Patent Publication No. 2008/0161749 relates to a portable infection control device that creates an environment around an open wound containing sterile gas.
U.S. Patent Publication No. 2010/0280436 relates to an apparatus and method for reducing contamination of surgical sites by providing a laminar flow of sterile gas across the surgical site in order to prevent ambient airborne particles from entering the site.
U.S. Patent Publication No. 2009/0054853 relates to a system that forms a sterile gas barrier to prevent airborne contaminant from reaching the site, and where light is emitted to activate a therapeutic agent in the gas.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,513,529 relates to the method for excluding infectious agents from the site of an incision by repelling the electrostatically charged infectious agents. U.S. Patent Publication No. 1991/5037395 relates to a system used to heat a medical device to an elevated temperature where bacteria cannot survive.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,037,395 relates to a catheter for suppressing tunnel infection by raising the temperature.
U.S. Patent Publication No. 2009/0143718 relates to a plasma treatment probe, which applies non-thermal plasma to a patient's body to treat a region.
U.S. Patent Publication No. 2008/0017564 relates to an apparatus used to remove particulates from a flowing fluid using magnetic attraction and repulsion.
U.S. Patent Publication No. 2010/0268249 relates to a system used to create a sterile barrier while still permitting the use of medical instruments on the surgical site.
U.S. Patent Publication No. 2004/6733435 relates a system and method used to treat an infection and other conditions of a lesion with a magnetic field.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,154,165 relates a device and method used to reduce infection in a patient's body by generating an electric field.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,254,625 relates a device used to reduce infection by sanitizing hands.
U.S. Patent Application No. 2010/0222852 relates an apparatus and method used to reduce infection by decolonizing microbes on the surfaces of the skin and in body cavities.
U.S. Patent Application No. 2010/0266446 relates an apparatus used to reduce infection by sanitizing the hands and forearms.
U.S. Pat. No. 8,318,090 relates a system and method used to reduce infection by sanitizing the hands.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,254,625 relates an apparatus and method used to reduce infection by sanitizing the hands.
U.S. Pat. No. 8,142,713 relates a system and method used to reduce infection by sanitizing the hands.
Accordingly, each of the aforementioned inventions has limitations and there is still a need for novel apparatuses, systems, and methods for reducing healthcare acquired infections by preventing infectious agents at the sterile site.